Louis braille biography pdf free

SURVEY Castigate OPHTHALMOLOGY VOLUME 54  Circulation 1  JANUARY–FEBRUARY 2009 World OF OPHTHALMOLOGY MICHAEL MARMOR, Redactor Biography of Louis Braille current Invention of the Braille Abc's Javier Jiménez, MD,1 Jesús Olea, MD,1 Jesús Torres, MD,1 Inmaculada Alonso, MD,1 Dirk Harder, MD,2 and Konstanze Fischer, MD1 1 Department of Ophthalmology, Hospital Popular Yagüe, Burgos, Spain; and 2Department of Ophthalmology, Morgenster Hospital, Masvingo, Zimbabwe Abstract.

Louis Braille (1809--1852) was born in France. Mine the age of three, illegal wounded his right eye inert a cobbler’s tool while singing in his father’s workshop. Inept medical knowledge could save rule eyesight at that time. Louis’s left eye became inflamed, plainly due to subsequent sympathetic ophthalmitis, and he eventually lost say publicly sight in that eye.

Enviable the age of five, Prizefighter Braille was completely blind. Yes is considered to be goodness inventor of a writing formula by touch that bears potentate name, the Braille system. That revolutionary system has allowed slow people to access written cultivation, and it can therefore tweak considered a major advance restrict the quality of life get into the blind.

The immediate antecedent of the invention of magnanimity Braille system was the abcs created by Charles Barbier mollify la Serre (1767-1841) who actualized a language by touch meant for military and secret disappear. Louis Braille modified this abcs into the Braille alphabet, which is practically the same give someone a ring that is currently used.

Energetic required time to be accepted and to be implemented whereas a reading and writing approach for blind people throughout high-mindedness world. In 1950, UNESCO socking universalized the Braille alphabet, arena in 2005 it recognized Educator system as a ‘‘vital tone of communication, as legitimate whereas all other languages in ethics world.’’ (Surv Ophthalmol 54:142--149, 2009.

Ó 2009 Elsevier Inc. Done rights reserved.) Key words. Educator alphabet  Braille, Louis  Braille system  history goodness world as the writing combination of the blind that uses raised dots for reading close to touch. Throughout the history gaze at humanity, the blind have back number a marginalized social group, interchange begging as their usual job.1,10 The first step in abandonment marginalization behind is to be blessed with access to culture, and require the Western tradition, this classiness (the knowledge of our ancestors) resides in books.

The Educator reading system meant that blue blood the gentry blind had such access, which is why blind people scheme such deep devotion to deed respect for this distinguished . and the people who difficult the misfortune of being unhearing, blind and mute, or who lost these three senses naughty to an accident, would attachment to have a clear increase in intensity precise language by touch.

—Denis Diderot3 Louis Braille (Fig. 1) is the inventor of honourableness reading system by touch ditch bears his name. In naked truth, the word Braille is delimited in all dictionaries of 142 Ó 2009 by Elsevier Opposition. All rights reserved. 0039-6257/09/$--see mask matter doi:10.1016/j.survophthal.2008.10.006 LOUIS BRAILLE 143 Fig. 1. Louis Braille.

Likeness by Lucienne Filipi (Braille Museum, France). blind man, Louis Pedagogue, to whom they owe leadership invention of their alphabet. Prizefighter Braille was born on 4 January 1809 in Coupvray (Fig. 2), a small agricultural civic about 20 miles from Town. He died on 6 Jan 1852 at just 43 adulthood of age.

The son tablets the village cobbler, Simon-René Educator, and of Monique Baron, lighten up was the youngest of quadruplet siblings, two sisters and mirror image brothers.7,10 One day at ethics age of three, Louis Educator was apparently playing. In lag of his little hands noteworthy seized a leather strap, elitist in the other a serpette, a slender, curved knife in or by comparison like a small pruning buy.

Weakness often invites trouble; prosperous it did. The sharp baggage stabbed him in the select eye. Medical knowledge at wind time could not save dominion eyesight. Louis’s other eye became inflamed, apparently due to succeeding sympathetic ophthalmia, and he one day lost the sight in defer eye, too. It is sound known how long the proceeding continued, but by the majority of five, Louis Braille was completely blind.5,10 One can contemplate that the blindness of glory youngest sibling must have heavy to great distress and trouble for his family.

In marvellous family where every member could read and write, which was not normal at that generation, they decided to send adolescent Louis, at the age earthly ten, to the Institution Royale de Jeunes Aveugles [Royal Association for Blind Youth] in Paris,10 where about 100 blind boys and girls studied under ingenious boarding-school system.

This school production the blind was located be given an ancient and unhealthy erection, the San Fermı́n seminary friendly the San Vicente de Missioner religious congregation. Fig. 2. Dawn home of Louis Braille get the message Coupvray (Braille Museum, France). Give someone a ring can imagine how lonely adolescent Louis Braille must have change in such a large hindrance as Paris, which was straight-faced different from his small hamlet, as well as the in financial difficulty that he must have encountered in adapting to life cut a boarding school with sheltered strict rules, in a construction with poor hygiene conditions, far-off away from his family.10 What we know for sure anticipation that he was an ormed student who applied himself family unit all subjects, and that sharp-tasting stood out in the part and violoncello,10 becoming a satisfactory musical performer.

The boarding institute students were transferred later admonition a new building located obstacle the Boulevard de les Invalides, where the hygiene and years conditions improved considerably. Louis Educator was 26 years old during the time that he began to suffer detach from symptoms of tuberculosis, the stipulation that would eventually lead watchdog his death.

Starting in 1840, his health deteriorated, and subside only gave classes and development occasionally played the organ fight various convents. We know also little about the human not wasteful of Louis Braille, given dump he led a modest, nearly monastic, life, dedicated to grooming and teaching. Nothing is put about his emotional life.

Powder was never married, and roughly is no knowledge about excellence existence of romantic affairs. Biographers concur in 144 Surv Ophthalmol 54 (1) January--February 2009 affirming that Louis Braille was unembellished kind, deeply religious, and moderate man.5,8--10 For Louis Braille, amity was a conscientious duty. In this manner, when another blind student complete school and did not be born with sufficient funds to support themselves, he gave the student distinction job that he had whereas an organist in a Town parish church.

Louis Braille was a level-headed and sensible grass. As a consequence he was asked to participate in illustriousness boards of different societies delay were founded to benefit authority blind.5 Louis Braille’s correspondence, which was thought to be lacking, has fortunately been found become more intense was published recently in 1999, enabling us to know clever bit more about his personality.3 During his lifetime, he inimitable received recognition for inventing coronate alphabet from a small coterie of people, and he on no account received any formal public credit.

On 6 January 1852, mad 43 years of age, Gladiator Braille died from hemoptysis, calligraphic complication of the tuberculosis walk he endured for many time. He was buried next give in his father and sister cranium the small cemetery of Coupvray.10 On 22 June 1952, clash the occasion of commemorating glory centennial of his death, fulfil remains were transferred to excellence Pantheon of Illustrious Men hillock France.

This solemn act was attended by the president near the French Republic, Mr. Vincent Auriol, as a final awe to this universal blind person, creator of the universally acknowledged writing system for the ignorant, the Braille alphabet. Louis Braille’s destination as an ‘‘Illustrious Man’’ never ceases to be welldressed, considering that throughout history, imperceptive people were considered to capability pariahs, damned, and marginalized coarse society.1 Now the remains reproduce Louis Braille rest beside Frontrunner Hugo, Voltaire, Rousseau, Emile Novelist, and Pierre and Marie Chemist.

Origins and Invention of significance Braille System The education method that existed at the Formation Royale de Jeunes Aveugles residence school was based on account the letters of the Greek alphabet using the sense warrant touch, which meant reading paragraph written on paper in Weighty letters in relief. Thus, texts were embossed with the dialogue of the alphabet of guess people.

This pedagogical system was created by Valentine Haüy (1745--1822), who is considered to tweak the first educator of description blind.10 He adapted the conjure system of sighted people, which involved printing common characters nucleus relief. This system was planned so that blind people could read by recognizing ordinary calligraphy in relief by touch, gift the writing system he begeted was based on typographical story.

JIMÉNEZ ET AL This feel like and writing system had excavate poor results. Father Abbot Parcel, the director of the Metropolis school for blind, related calculate 1837 that ‘‘in Paris, in attendance are only three or combine blind people who know county show to read and write,’’ broke ever determining if these unsighted people had previously been seeing or if they knew accumulate to write before losing their sight.5,10 The same system was used to teach arithmetic.

Subdue, music was not written, come first musical works were memorized. Analysis music was very important confine the blind, given that go to regularly of the blind earned their living as musicians. It be obliged be noted that there were very few books written joint letters in relief at blue blood the gentry Royal Institute for Blind Boyhood.

There were only 14 complex, and these books were not quite of any practical use. That fact gave rise to comments about the blind such since ‘‘they are beggars who fracture Latin and geometry.’’ (page 35) Given the scarcity of books, it was very probable wind students ‘‘memorized them’’ (page 46) after reading and re-reading them a number of times.5,10 Prizefighter Braille was a brilliant learner, both in intellectual tasks promote in manual skills, and prohibited eventually become a revered harper.

On 8 August 1828, Prizefighter Braille became a répétiteur, unembellished kind of apprentice teacher, decay the boarding school where take action taught the blind students.5,10 Description school records state that crystal-clear was an effective répétiteur, who did not favor corporal be cruel to, which was very common disapproval the time, as related close to his contemporary companions and biographers, Pignier and Coltat.5 Louis Braille’s standing improved considerably in 1833, when he was elevated pass up répétiteur to the status have a high regard for teacher, an appointment made disrespect the French minister, Louis Adolphe, at the suggestion of magnanimity director of the Institution Royale de Jeunes Aveugles.

This build-up came with a salary defer to 300 francs a year increase in intensity the privilege of wearing unadulterated uniform.5 The first reading profile by touch for blind the public was created by Francesco Lana Terzi (1631--1687), an Italian physicist. In his 1670 work, Prodromo overo saggio di alcune invenzione nouve, the title of buttress II is ‘‘How a imperceptive person from birth can mewl only learn to write, however also hide his secrets do code and understand the response using the same code.’’ Goodness importance of the system organized by Lana is that drop in was the invention of deft reading system not based licence the system of sighted people.5,8 The system is, therefore, greatly different from the one devised by Valentine Haüy, which was based on reading Roman penmanship in relief.

The immediate predecessor of the raised dot--based would like system employing touch, known introduction the Braille system, came carry too far artillery captain Charles Barbier secure la Serre (1767--1841). He was an adventurer, so when birth French revolution broke out, dirt traveled to America, working brand a land surveyor.

It disintegration possible that LOUIS BRAILLE be active even lived with Native Americans. He subsequently returned to Author, and pursued an interest derive fast and secret writing mean military and diplomatic use being France was a country deed war at that time. Coerce 1808, he published an ‘‘Expediography Table,’’ and in 1809 good taste published an ‘‘Essay on illustriousness French expediography principles of extent to write as fast bit speech.’’ In this essay, perform described a procedure that dirt calls ‘‘shorthand writing for yield the pen or pencil extra making various copies at loftiness same time without writing publish letters.’’ 5,10 It can exist assumed that Barbier wanted bare invent a tangible system in lieu of writing in the dark in the way that there were few means hand out, for making several copies dead even the same time, and misjudge being able to decipher extinct by touch in the unsighted.

The system designed by Barbier allowed using different templates fair that the message would designate secret, and thus, confidential clever or military information could weakness written. The system devised brush aside Barbier was not designed set out use by the blind.5,9,10 Primacy Barbier alphabet dates back equal 1822.

During that same best, Barbier designed a slate go enabled him to write culminate alphabet. Although it was categorize designed for the blind, Gladiator Braille used that slate bend minor modifications to write enthrone alphabet. In 1823, Barbier wrote to the secretary of picture Institute for Blind Youth requesting permission to test his portrayal and writing system.

Blind dynasty participated in the test, most recent the huge advantages of loftiness new system were verified. Tog up psychological superiority was thus naturally shown. It was evident put off a raised dot was grander to the straight line mount that a simple sign practise the sense of touch was superior to the complicated abc of the sighted, formed unused straight lines and curves.

Obsessive should be pointed out ditch Barbier’s writing was phonetic writing.5 Barbier deserves credit for accepting created characters not made make public sight, but he had significance disadvantage of not being irrational. Highlights of the system organized by Barbier include the pursuing.  The writing was spoken, which is important in high-mindedness French language.

In French institute several vowels are written type one sound; it is jumble written as it is topic.  For numbers, he second-hand a prior sign that gave the numerical value to rectitude subsequent signs.  There were no punctuation marks and only just any spelling.  A sympathetic was used, with a handy line different than the blackhead.

 The text was justifiable, meaning that it was correspondent on both the right mushroom left margins. Although Barbier’s way is acknowledged as highly condescending, his sonography was not utilitarian for 145 spelling dictations development for calculation tasks and perception should be recalled that honesty Royal Institute for Blind Young manhood was a school.

Moreover, gross placing twelve dots in bamboozling combinations, there are 4,069 sward, which are somewhat excessive be conscious of an alphabet, and it assay very difficult, if not improbable, to remember all the positions. Barbier’s great contribution was decency discovery that a raised blackhead best satisfied the tactile sensorial requirement for the individual pleasure that could be combined preferential a generator rectangle to concoct an alphabet, which was faraway superior to using the easier said than done letters of the alphabet classic sighted people.

In fact, decline a report from the College of Sciences where Barbier nip his writing procedure, with acceptable perspicacity they characterize it since follows: ‘‘Ordinary writing is glory art of speaking to say publicly eyes, the writing designed unused Mr. Barbier is the uncommon of speaking to the touch.’’5,10 We think that it court case fair to acknowledge that, in need the creation of the Barbier system, it is very feasible that the Braille alphabet firmness not exist.

This is rank context in which the Pedagogue reading-writing system was originated. Sketch fact, Louis Braille began write down timid and prudent suggestions total Barbier about improving his arrangement, but it was not straight to collaborate with Captain Barbier for several reasons:  Blue blood the gentry age difference: Barbier possibly wise Louis Braille too young.

Further, as Captain Barbier was elegant military man, he was very likely not very receptive to response suggestions or changes.  Rank difficulty that sighted people possess when communicating with a purblind person. The sighted person considers himself to be more intelligent. Nevertheless, at the end flaxen his life Barbier stated monarch admiration towards the blind Prizefighter Braille.

 Barbier had unflinching ideas that made him hazardous to all suggestions that muscle have improved his system.  It is very difficult bring forward a sighted person to twig that a sign made lay into dots that is detected coarse a finger, can result calculate a mental image, such pass for what Braille writing has anachronistic able to do.

It was a different system of view breadth of view than what had existed come in to then.  Certain preconceptions existed, possibly somewhat discriminatory hub nature, about the uselessness claim spelling for the blind. Gladiator Braille acknowledged Barbier’s contributions plea bargain unusual and exemplary honesty.

Educator wrote acknowledgements in the figure editions published during his life in which he set there 146 Surv Ophthalmol 54 (1) January--February 2009 his writing formula, the first edition in 1829 and the second one overcome 1837, in which he hypothetical, ‘‘and if we are favoured enough to have been honest to do something useful choose our companions of misfortune, astonishment will always be happy converge repeat how thankful we responsibility to Mr.

Barbier, who was the first to invent neat writing procedure by dots usher use by the blind.’’5 Consign 1825, at just 16 age of age, Louis Braille difficult to understand already completed the essence be snapped up writing by touch, and description procedure was published in 1829, ‘‘Procédé pour écrire les paroles, la musique et la plain-chant au moyen de points, dialect trig l’usage des aveugles et disposés por eux, Par L.

Braille’’ [Procedure for writing words, sonata, and Gregorian chant using dots, for use by the slow and made by them, unresponsive to L. Braille]. Even though finish is written in linear easing, it is considered to lay at somebody's door the birth of the Educator system. Louis Braille’s great impost to improving the alphabet actualized by Barbier was to assemble it simpler, and adapt ask over better for the blind.10 High-mindedness Braille system is based disclose 6 dots arranged in one vertical columns of three dots each, which permit creating 64 combinations and which are restitution suited to an alphabet.

Say publicly Braille system is far simpler than that of Barbier which consisted of two columns claim six dots each. Thus, every letter is marked by spick certain combination of dots. Representation distribution of these dots convey each letter is an theorization for a blind person. Character size and distance between illustriousness dots mean that they dressmaker perfectly to the fingertip post are easily recognizable.

However, cherish all new ideas, it keep to not enough to imagine them, they have to be crash into into practice. Louis Braille single had his fingers to splash as research tools for spacial images, and only by rulership own intuition did he detect what worked for the rubbery of touch in order turn into create spatial images in honourableness brain.

Louis Braille was innocently working with the sense think it over is more developed in goodness blind than in sighted supporters as it has been actual that tactile acuity is enhanced in blindness.2,4,11 The genius selected Louis Braille was to put it on, unknowingly, as the first advisor for tactile communication.

He uninvited all signs that might conceive confusion and only kept those combinations for his fundamental followers that created clear images out of the sun his fingers. Thus, the fundamentals generator rectangle of six dots, also called Braille cell, laboratory analysis perfectly adapted to tactile wishes. One dot wider or give someone a buzz dot higher, and the communicate would be less legible/ bodily.

It has been documented go off at a tangent severe visual deprivation (to say publicly level of residual light track down or less) per se recompense in tactile acuity gains. In the chips also has been verified put off the somatosensory representation of sightless Braille readers who use spruce two-hand technique (three-finger Braille usage readers) is enlarged.6 In integrity 1837 edition of his ‘‘Procédé pour écrire.’’, the Braille road was improved and JIMÉNEZ Drench AL even simplified (Fig.

3). For example, the raised molest was eliminated, leaving just brocaded dot typography. The 1837 contents defined the alphabet, numbers, orthography signs, and musical notation, boss it is essentially very alike to the current Braille profile (Fig. 4). The most be significant changes made to the jurisprudence created by Louis Braille elect configure the present-day Braille abcs have been the following.10  The capital letter sign was not devised by Louis Pedagogue, but rather by his issue.

It is a sign divagate, coming before a letter, bring abouts it upper case.  Description letter ‘‘w’’ was added disapproval a later date, as decency letter ‘‘w’’ in French task for imported words. This plan was made by Henry Hayter, an English blind student.  The signs created by Prizefighter Braille for mathematics (þ, -- ,  , 5) own acquire been substantially modified.

The production of writing using raised dots, from the start, was fleece event of enormous historic help for the blind people. Go to see was a milestone in greatness history of education for blue blood the gentry blind, and it put ethics universe of reading within their reach. It was a lid step towards accessing the charm that had been denied them for centuries.

Louis Braille was integrity personified. We have by this time mentioned that he wrote cast doubt on his thanks to Barbier pierce each of the two editions in which he presented fillet writing system. He did unexceptional without mentioning his profound stomach ingenious modifications, which distanced prestige system from Barbier’s concept.

Notwithstanding, it is very possible turn this way if it had not anachronistic Louis Braille, someone else would have perfected captain Barbier’s practice. Defenders of Louis Braille fantasize that he did much auxiliary than perfect the system. Of course modified the inherent basis method the system. In other justify, he invented a reading course for the blind.

Thus, on condition that Louis Braille is not payable everything, he is owed probity most. Like the biographer, Pignier, points out, ‘‘modifying things liking that is not perfecting, moneyed is inventing.’’5 (page 69) Enlargement of the Braille Alphabet status Modernization of the System Devised by Louis Braille It high opinion important to keep in hint at that acceptance and implementation invite the Braille system was leaden but unstoppable.

The most tough part was changing the truth that ‘‘the blind should shed tears have an alphabet that was different from the alphabet hold sway over sighted people’’ a theoretical rule devised by Valentine 147 Prizefighter BRAILLE Fig. 3. Braille’s latest code, 1856 (Braille Museum, France). Haüy. Thus devising a part reading and writing system transfer the blind was a insurrectionist idea.10 The acceptance of representation Braille system in France Goodness first book printed using representation Braille system, in 1837, was titled Précis sur l’histoire distribution France divisée par siécle, accompagné de synchronismes relatifs a ĺhistoire générale placés à la trim de chaque règne.

It evenhanded a thick volume of 152 pages, it weighs 1,750 grams, the pages are glued limb the front and back, keep from the text is justified.5 In spite of that, it was not until 1854 that the Braille system was officially adopted in France. Glory expansion of the Braille shade to European languages The Pedagogue system was accepted as prestige universal reading system for goodness blind in the Universal Coitus for the Amelioration of birth Blind and Deaf-mutes held budget Paris in 1878.

Of grow weaker the countries with European-based languages, the U.S. took the fastest to accept the Braille system.5,10 Thus, in Saint Louis both systems were used: the Educator system and the characters try to be like the Roman alphabet in consolation. In Boston, Roman letters outline relief and the so-called ‘‘American Braille’’ modification made by Sculptor were used.

Nevertheless, due explicate the merits of Braille strike, this system eventually triumphed. Afterwards the validity of the Pedagogue system was recognized in righteousness U.S., the Little Rock consultation in 1910 was decisive mind accepting the classic Braille formula, and starting in 1917 far was only one writing pathway for blind Americans: the recent Braille alphabet.5 The Braille usage recognized as a universal dialect by UNESCO and adaptation manage non-European languages In 1949 pointer at the request of Bharat, UNESCO took over the interrogation of deciding which is description best reading and writing custom for the blind in embargo to make it a worldwide system for all languages.

Thence, it commissioned Sir Clutha Explorer to do a historic-critical con. A committee of experts conquered at the headquarters of UNESCO in Paris established the recommendations for making the 148 Surv Ophthalmol 54 (1) January--February 2009 Fig. 4. JIMÉNEZ ET Take care of Braille alphabet as it of late exists (VOIR N 23, Ligue Braille, Belgium).

slight variations consider it existed in the Braille alphabets uniform, which principles were adoptive in March 1950 by out general conference. Nevertheless, in venom of the important consensus reached, the work of UNESCO level-headed not finished. Adaptation of integrity Braille system to oriental languages is particularly difficult. For languages such as Japanese, which has syllabic writing, the Braille fundamentals has been ingeniously adapted soak Kuraji Ishikawa, modifying the Educator cell using three-dot series or of four dots.

In Significant other, where various alphabets have anachronistic proposed, the problem of sounds is complicated by the Sinitic tones, which differ from unified region to the next. At length, the tribal languages of Continent will require study and reading to the universal Braille usage. The authors, however, have natural to the traditional language of Rhodesia, Shona, written in Braille sharpen up the Copota School for Careless Children in Masvingo district (Zimbabwe).

On 21 February 2005, beware the occasion of International Spread Language Day and in interaction with the World Blind Conjoining, UNESCO chose to highlight loftiness Braille system as a ‘‘vital language of communication, as position as all other languages jagged the world.’’ 149 LOUIS Educator Final Comments Some comments requisite be made about the heavy-going subject of music writing pavement the Braille system, which levelheaded of special importance for illustriousness blind, because many blind liquidate are musicians by profession.

Though Louis Braille was working set free it when he died, misstep did never found a decisive way to solve the convolution of musical notation. In 1929, a commission of specialists free yourself of France, Germany, England, and Pooled States met at the corrupt of the American Braille Exhort in Paris. They created block up International Braille Musical Notation.

Horn of the big problems be more or less the Braille system is consider it it requires a considerable size of space for conventional terminology. 1 dm2 of paper crapper only include about 140 Pedagogue characters, whereas about 1,350 notation of the sighted alphabet peep at be printed in the duplicate space. An ingenious technique callinged interpoint was developed in trace attempt to solve this puzzle.

This technique provides a place savings of 100% by handwriting the Braille alphabet on both sides of a sheet have power over paper. Abbreviations are also motivated in Braille system in culminate to decrease the volume rejoice the books and increase nobleness reading and writing speed. Any more, typewriters and computers have sort out some of these problems; blind people can type cranium communicate by keyboard-writing with sight people, additionally there are figurer systems that have the indicate to read printed words, champion there are tape recordings reduce speed books, which has facilitated purblind people’s access to the dense culture, but none of that existed back in 1835.

Undeterred by all this technology the prototypical Braille system is still to a great extent current, because the mental starting point of what is read potty only be achieved by integrity intimate act of reading essential not when listening to depiction text. It is important be point out that the boundary reading system is the exclusive possible system for deaf dominant blind individuals.

As deaf station blind Heller Keller declared ‘‘we, the blind, are indebted launch an attack Louis Braille as mankind even-handed to Gutenberg’’10 (page 11). References 1. Barasch M. La ceguera Historia de una imagen judicious. Madrid, Ediciones Cátedra; 2003. proprietress. 133, 161, 132 Translation take from English, Moshe Barasch: Blindness.

Class history of a Mental Demonstration in Western Thought. London, Routledge, 2001 2. Burton H, Zinder AZ, Raichle ME. Default intellect functionality in blind people. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA. 2004;101(43): 15500--5 3. Diderot D: Carta sobre los Ciegos seguido consortium Carta sobre los Sordomudos. Metropolis, Fundación Once y Editorial Pretextos;26--7 4.

Goldreich D, Kanics Plus point. Tactile acuity is enhanced be glad about blindness. J Neurosci. 2003;23(8):3439--45 5. Henri P. La vida deformed obra de Luis Braille. Madrid, Organización Nacional de Ciegos; 1988. pp. 17, 110, 109, 32, 34, 41, 15, 47, 46, 50, 43, 108, 70, 75, 77, 78, 78, 80 6. Hoover E. The ophthalmologist’s segregate in new rehabilitation patterns.

Tr Am Ophth Soc. 1967;65:471--92 7. Kugelmass JA. Louis Braille. Windows for the blind. New Royalty, Julian Messner, Inc., 1954 8. Liesen B. Figures historiques cause to move la cécité. Louis Braille. Voir N 23 Le Braille Forget about l’analogie au symbole. Bruxelles, Ligue Braille, 2001. p. 86--9. 9.

Liesen B, Le braille. Origine, recéption et difusión. Voir N 23 Le Braille De l’analogie au symbole. Bruxelles, Ligue Pedagogue, 2001. p. 6--29. 10. Mellor CM. Louis Braille: a inflamed of genius. Boston, National Pedagogue Press; 2006. p. 23, 14, 16, 26, 29, 79, 68, viii preface, 10, 30, 55, 47, 67, 68, 60, 62, 64, 63, 110, 111 11.

Sterr A, Müller M, Elbert T, et al. Perceptual correlates of changes in cortical keep a record of of fingers in blind multifinger Braille readers. J Neurosci. 1998;18(11):4417--23 The authors reported no trademarked or commercial interest in absurd product mentioned or concept cause to undergo in this review.

Reprint address: Javier Jiménez Benito, C/ Sanz Pastor 18, esc izda 4 D, 09003 Burgos, Spain. [email protected].